A Rough List of Comets and Eclipses Correlated with Historical Records

Statement of belief: “Sanctify them through thy truth: thy word is truth.” (John 17:17 KJV)

Updated 5928± 10 24 2024 [2008-01-04]

Cross Correlating Recorded History

with Exactly Dated Astronomical Events

Nailing Down the Exact Dates of Recorded History upon the Cross of Astronomical Tables

A listing of 18± celestial events, dated from 49 BCE thru 66 CE, matched to historical records tied to the reigns of various Roman Emperors and other dated historical events

Abstract:

Below is a list of ten (10) comets, five (5) solar eclipses, and three (3) lunar eclipses that have been matched to key historical events from 49 BCE through 66 CE. Based upon these matches, plus a large number of matches based upon the New Moons of the biblical calendar as referenced in the New Testament and by Josephus, I cannot avoid concluding that…

It is time for a paradigm shift re the dating of historical events surrounding the beginning of the Christian era!

Many dates considered well known in conventional history, though without matches to celestial events described in historical records, must be shifted back in time between five and fifteen years relative to the dates usually provided in conventional historical works. This applies to all the events in the New Testament as well as to the regnal periods of the Roman Emperors.

The celestial events described in astronomical tables may be looked upon as the unique fingerprints of time. Whenever dated historical records describing celestial events can be reliably matched up to the exact fingerprints of astronomical tables such historical records may be considered reliably dated once and for all.

Josephus is describing a number of exactly dated events which now seem to have been nailed down fairly solidly upon the cross of exact astronomical tables of solar and lunar eclipses and phases of the moon. Josephus is referencing one important lunar eclipse (9 BCE) and one comet (55/56 CE) within the period of time here considered.

One very solid historical fingerprint with many particulars is the period of time surrounding Herod the Great’s reign. Included within his reign are several exact dates expressed in terms of Olympic years. One lunar eclipse in 9 BCE has been successfully identified with the eclipse occurring shortly prior to Herod the Great’s death. A solar eclipse in 29 CE has then been successfully identified with an eclipse recorded as occurring in the fourth year of the 202^nd Olympiad. These correlations have been matched up with additional celestial and historical events associated with Julius Caesar and Caesar Augustus and others. One thing leads to another and it is obvious that once the first pieces of the puzzle are correctly placed all the other pieces may then be correctly placed in short order.

As apparent from Fred Espenak’s and NASA’s current list of Historically Important Eclipses, conventional history has failed to nail down any certain correlations between historically recorded events and dated astronomical tables within a very long time period in the first centuries BCE and CE. Ronald L. Conte Jr.’s work appears to have changed all that as described in his book Important Dates in the Life of Jesus and Mary.

Ronald L. Conte Jr. has done a tremendous job of identifying historically recorded comets and eclipses, etc. with specific celestial events. Accordingly he has successfully produced a revision of historical chronology with many solid points in time to build upon starting with the death of Julius Caesar and ending with the end of Domitian.

The celestial events listed below span the time period from 49 BCE thru 66 CE. Building upon the excellent work of Ronald L. Conte Jr., and also upon the great number of exact dates provided by Josephus, the Word of God has taught me a way to arrive at more or less the exact dates of many, or even most, of the dates I’ve come across thus far. I have been able to date a number of events in the New Testament and also such as pertain to the reigns of Roman emperors. My study extends from 67 BCE thru 83 CE.

The first matching fingerprint I found was that which is based upon the New Testament record of the Crucifixion week and a few associated events before and after. This fingerprint is based primarily upon phases of the moon and is not included within the list below. Ronald L. Conte Jr.’s work made it possible for me to extend that study of mine to the point where I was able to arrive at an apparently perfect match in many more particulars than I had at first been looking at.

The rough list below is just that – a rough list. It is a collection of the celestial events referenced by Ronald L. Conte Jr. Many, or even most, of the correlations below seems quite solid. Josephus has proven to be almost solidly reliable in every particular touching upon the time period 67 BCE, when Augustus was born, thru 56 CE, when the Temple was burnt down and Jerusalem taken by the Romans. There appears to be possible exceptions to Josephus’ reliability only when considering the time intervals provided in the headings within Josephus’ books. Possibly these headings are not Josephus’ original headings, but the work of later editors? Suetonius also seems to be almost fully reliable, with only a few exceptions. Thus Josephus and Suetonius constitute two apparently independent witnesses agreeing with one another perfectly in most instances, while also being more or less concurrent in time with the events here described. However, I have not found a basis for understanding Dio in such a way that his data seem reliable to me, though his data do occasionally agree with the earlier historians.

A Rough List of Celestial Events Correlated with Historical Events [all emphasis mine]:

When: 49 BCE during the lunar month of April 14 to May 12

What: A comet

Associated historical event: Following the death of Julius Caesar

Chief reference:

Pliny quoting Augustus: “ ‘On the very days of my Games a comet was visible for seven days in the northern part of the sky. It was [in “the eleventh hour of the day”], and was a bright star visible from all lands.’ ”810

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr.:

“This comet is often depicted in ancient images of Julius Caesar.

“In 49 B.C., Chinese astronomers recorded seeing a comet during the lunar month of April 14 to May 12 in the constellation Cassiopeia.⁸¹⁹ This constellation, as seen from Rome during that time period, was in the northern part of the sky. The comet of 49 B.C. would also have been seen in the northern part of the sky, matching the words of Augustus closely. Also, the time of year is… correct for the comet following the death of Julius Caesar, who died in mid March.

“The comet associated with the death of Julius Caesar was seen either an hour before, or a little after, sunset. This time frame for the visibility of the comet fits the 49 B.C. comet. During this time period (April 14 to May 12), the constellation Cassiopeia was above the horizon and clearly visible from Rome before, during, and after sunset.⁸²⁰ At about the time of sunset, Cassiopeia was almost exactly due north, as viewed from Rome. Thus the comet of 49 B.C. would have been clearly visible in the north, as the sky first began to dim, a little after sunset.

“Based on the above information, the comet of 49 B.C. is the only fit for the information given by Pliny and Augustus for the comet following the death of Julius Caesar. This comet was located in the northern part of the sky, was visible about the eleventh hour of the day, and could well have been rising at that time of day.

“The above information on both comets and solar eclipses points to the same conclusion… Julius Caesar died in mid March of 49 B.C...”

810 Pliny, Natural History, 2.23. The same comet is also mentioned by numerous other ancient writers. See Kronk, Cometography, p. 22, for a listing.

819 Kronk, Cometography, p. 21.

820 RedShift 3 astronomy software.

When: 49 BCE August 9, at 11:30 hours local time.⁸⁰⁹

What: Solar eclipse

Associated historical event: Following the murder of Julius Caesar

Chief reference:

Pliny: “Portentous and protracted eclipses of the sun occur, such as the one after the murder of Caesar the dictator….”⁸⁰⁶

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr.:

The evidence concerning a solar eclipse after the death of Julius Caesar gives further support to a date of 49 B.C. for the death of Julius Caesar. (See sections 1 and 2 above.)

806 Pliny, Natural History, 2.30. Julius Caesar is obviously the one referred to as the dictator who was murdered. The circumstances of his death, described by Suetonius, Josephus, and others make it clear Julius Caesar was murdered. And he was long thought of, and referred to, in ancient Rome, as a dictator.

809 Fred Espenak, Five Millennium Catalog of Solar Eclipses, NASA/GSFC, <http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat/SEcatalog.html>. Here the time is given as 10:30 Universal Time (GMT), which would be 11:30 hours local standard time in Rome.

When: 32 BCE in the lunar month beginning on Feb. 6

What: A comet

Associated historical event: Associated with the war between Augustus and Marc Anthony

Chief references:

Dio: “…and for many days a flaming torch was seen to rise over the sea in the direction of Greece, and to soar aloft in the sky.”⁹⁰⁹

Dio/Conte: “during the war between Augustus and Marc Anthony”

Conte: “only a year and six months after the death of Marc Anthony and Cleopatra”

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr.:

A comet is described by Dio as one of the omens associated with the war between Augustus and Marc Anthony: “…and for many days a flaming torch was seen to rise over the sea in the direction of Greece, and to soar aloft in the sky.”⁹⁰⁹ A comet recorded by the ancient Chinese astronomers, which occurred in the lunar month beginning on Feb. 6 of 32 B.C., fits this description well. That comet had a long tail, which might be described as a torch, and was seen against the constellation Pegasus.⁹¹⁰ From the point of view of Rome in that month and year, Pegasus would be visible rising in the east beginning just before dawn.⁹¹¹ Greece is eastsoutheast of Rome. …the deaths of Anthony and Cleopatra occurred in August of 34 B.C., revised, nearly a year after their defeat at Actium in September of 35 B.C.⁹¹² This places the comet of 32 B.C. only a year and six months after the death of Marc Anthony and Cleopatra in my revised chronology.

909 Dio, The Roman History, Penguin Books, p. 40. See also: Dio, Roman History, Volume V, Loeb Classical Library, 50.8.2.

910 Kronk, Cometography, p. 24.

911 Information the location of this constellation as seen from Rome in that time period is from the astronomy software program RedShift 3.

912 The usual date for the deaths of Marc Anthony and Cleopatra is August of 30 B.C. Finegan, Handbook of Biblical Chronology, revised edition, no. 299, p. 162.

When: 15/16 BCE, most likely sometime between March and December

What: A comet

Associated historical events: 1. After Agrippa died. 2. Yeshua’s birth / Quirinius – at the time of the census / Augustus

Chief reference:

Cassius Dio: Mentions a comet at the time of the census (about 16/15 B.C., revised).⁹⁰³

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr.:

Augustus’ Comets

The Christmas Star, which appeared at the time of the Birth of Jesus Christ and assisted the Magi in finding the Christ-Child (Mt 2:1-12), was most likely a comet (see chapter 4). This comet appeared at the time of the census/taxation under Caesar Augustus and Quirinius (Lk 2:1-2). Cassius Dio does mention a comet at the time of the census (about 16/15 B.C., revised).903 He states that this comet occurred at about the time of Agrippa’s death. Dio places his description of the comet after his description of Agrippa’s death. He does not tell us that the comet was an omen which foreshadowed the death of Agrippa, as he typically does with a comet seen before the death of a Roman leader (e.g. Vespasian), but states merely that it was one of many events “connected with Agrippa’s death.”⁹⁰⁴ Thus, the comet may have been seen after the death of Agrippa. As explained in chapter 4 of this book, my revised date for the death of Agrippa is spring of 15 B.C. (the usual date is 11 B.C.). This comet was therefore seen in 15 B.C., most likely sometime between March and December, after Agrippa died. There is no record of a comet, seen by the ancient Chinese and Korean astronomers, in 15 B.C. However, there are gaps in the extant records of these ancient astronomers, during which time we have no record of any comet observations (e.g. 31 B.C. to 13 B.C., and 4 B.C. to A.D. 12, inclusive). Also, there is no extant record of a comet observation by Chinese astronomers from A.D. 40 to A.D. 53, inclusive; but ancient Korean astronomers did record the sighting of a comet in A.D. 46. This recorded sighting by the Korean astronomers reveals the gap in the recorded sightings of the Chinese astronomers. …Dio’s description indicates that the comet was seen after the death of Agrippa (spring 11 B.C., usual), whereas Halley’s comet (Aug. to Oct. of 12 B.C.) was seen before that date.

903 Dio, The Roman History, Penguin Books, p. 182. Compare to: Dio, Roman History, Volume VI, Loeb Classical Library, 54.29.7–54.30.1. In the Loeb translation, there is a general reference to “portents…as are wont to happen to them before the greatest calamities.” However, Dio does not specifically apply this to the comet’s appearance. It is rather a general comment on portents in general. The Penguin Books translation has it as: “when the greatest calamities threaten the state.”

904 Dio, Roman History, Volume VI, Loeb Classical Library, 54.30.1.

When: 9 BCE “Nov 28 18:41 t” - UT

What: A total lunar eclipse

Associated historical event: Herod the Great died within a few months of a lunar eclipse

Chief reference:

Josephus: “But Herod deprived this Matthias of the high priesthood, and burnt the other Matthias, who had raised the sedition, with his companions, alive. And that very night there was an eclipse of the moon.” Josephus, Antiquties, XVII:6:4. “When he had done these things, he died, the fifth day after he had caused Antipater to be slain; having reigned, since he had procured Antigonus to be slain, thirty-four years; but since he had been declared king by the Romans, thirty-seven.” Josephus, Antiquties, XVII:8:1.

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr.:

“The lunar eclipse which preceded the death of Herod is very helpful in determining the time frame for his death.”

When: 10 CE June 30 at 11:19 hours (time of greatest eclipse).

What: A total solar eclipse, though only visible as partial over the Roman Empire

Associated historical event: Solar eclipse prior to the death of Augustus

Chief reference:

Dio Cassius describes a solar eclipse as one of the portents occurring before the death of Caesar Augustus.⁸³³

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr.:

“The solar eclipse data supports this earlier date of A.D. 10 for Augustus’ death …

“The solar eclipse on June 30 of A.D. 10 was a total solar eclipse, and was visible from most of Europe and most of Italy as a partial solar eclipse.⁸³⁵

“The eclipse on June 30 of A.D. 10 was a total eclipse, but would only have appeared to be a partial eclipse from anywhere in the Roman Empire. Eclipses of the sun were predictable by the scholars of Rome.⁸³⁸ So perhaps Dio, writing several generations after this event, knew from scholars of his day that the eclipse was, in fact, a total eclipse. Then, when he wrote about the eclipse, he described what a total solar eclipse would look like. Perhaps he did not have before him a text describing what people saw at the time the eclipse occurred.”

833 Dio, Roman History, Volume VII, Loeb Classical Library, 56.29.3.

835 Solar eclipse on June 30 of A.D. 10 at 11:19 hours (time of greatest eclipse). Fred Espenak, Five Millennium Catalog of Solar Eclipses, NASA/GSFC, <http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat/SEcatalog.html>. RedShift 3 software shows that this eclipse was visible at a partial solar eclipse from Italy and most of Europe.

838 Pliny, Natural History, 2.9.

When: 26 CE Aug 1

What: A solar eclipse

Associated historical event: Solar eclipse predicted on Claudius’ birthday.

Primary reference: Dio: “some other portents had already occurred.”937

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr.:

Dio tells us an interesting story about a solar eclipse that occurred during the reign of Claudius.932 The emperor Claudius knew from the calculations of Roman astronomers that a solar eclipse would coincide with his birthday. The Roman people considered eclipses in general to be omens of impending events, either of a change in leadership or of some misfortune. An eclipse coinciding with the birthday of an emperor is a very rare event and would have been interpreted by the Romans as very significant. They would likely have interpreted this event as indicating either an end to Claudius’ reign, or the beginning of some misfortune or disaster during his reign. In order to forestall any disturbance among the people as a result of this eclipse, Claudius issued a proclamation about the eclipse. His proclamation explained when the eclipse would occur and how long it would last, and gave a fairly scientific explanation as to why eclipses occur.933 Dio’s description of this proclamation shows us that the Roman scholars of that time period could predict eclipses with a fair degree of accuracy. Dio is therefore unlikely to have been mistaken that a solar eclipse coincided with Claudius’ birthday, both because the proclamation about the eclipse was an historical event and because the scholars of Dio’s time period could have verified when the eclipse occurred. …Claudius’ birthday was August 1 … In my revised chronology, the solar eclipse on August 1 of A.D. 26 is the eclipse mentioned by Dio. That eclipse also occurred in the morning and was centered in Africa, but would not have been visible from Europe. The scholars of Claudius’ time could predict the day and time when a solar eclipse would occur. However, it is another matter altogether to be able to predict where on earth the shadow of the moon will fall during a solar eclipse. To predict the day and time, one must know the relative positions of the sun, earth, and moon. … This eclipse coincides with the first year of Claudius’ reign in my revised chronology (A.D. 26, revised). … But why was Claudius concerned enough about a possible future solar eclipse to inquire of Roman scholars when the next one would occur? Dio states only that “some other portents had already occurred.”937 …But in the revised chronology, there was a solar eclipse visible from Rome on Feb. 6 of A.D. 26. This eclipse occurred only a couple of weeks after Claudius became emperor. This first eclipse of A.D. 26 was a partial solar eclipse that was visible from Rome at, and well after, dawn. This impressive eclipse would have been seen by the Roman people as an omen associated with the reign of Claudius, because it occurred so soon after he became emperor. Thus, the revised chronology offers a clear explanation as to why Claudius consulted scholars about future solar eclipses in the first place. The first solar eclipse (Feb. 6 of A.D. 26) caused a stir among the Roman people, who were quite superstitious about eclipses. This caused Claudius to inquire when the next solar eclipse would occur. When Roman scholars informed Claudius of a second solar eclipse later that year, and one coinciding with his birthday, he became concerned about how the Roman people would interpret such an omen. For this reason, he issued his famous proclamation about the eclipse, in an attempt to prevent people from interpreting that eclipse as also an omen against him. Now, if the eclipse mentioned in the proclamation had actually been visible from the Roman Empire, a proclamation by the emperor would not have been likely to cause the Roman people as a whole to abandon their belief that celestial events are meaningful omens. Yet Dio mentions no reaction by anyone to the eclipse of the proclamation. …the August 1, A.D. 26 eclipse was not visible from the Roman Empire, but only from central and southern Africa. The reason there is no mention by Dio of any reaction to the eclipse is that it was not visible to the Roman people. The revised chronology can explain why Claudius sought information about a future solar eclipse (his reaction to the Feb. eclipse) and can explain the lack of any response from the Roman people after the August eclipse (it was not visible to them

932 Dio, Roman History, Volume VII, Loeb Classical Library, 60.26.1-5.

933 Dio, Roman History, Volume VII, Loeb Classical Library, 60.26.1-5.

934 Dio, Roman History, Volume VII, Loeb Classical Library, 60.26-27.

935 See for example: Pliny, Natural History, 2.8-13.

936 Dio, Roman History, Volume VII, Loeb Classical Library, 60.26.1-5.

937 Dio, Roman History, Volume VII, Loeb Classical Library, 60.26.1.

When: 29 CE Nov 24 late AM

What: A solar eclipse

Associated historical event: This eclipse is tied to the fourth year of the 202nd Olympiad

Chief references:

Origen, "Contra Celsus"

"(33) And with regard to the eclipse in the time of Tiberius Caesar, in whose reign Jesus appears to have been crucified, and the great earthquakes which then took place, Phlegon too, I think, has written in the thirteenth or fourteenth book of his Chronicles;"

"And Phlegon also who compiled the Olympiads writes about the same things in his 13th book in the following words: 'In the fourth year of the 202nd Olympiad (AD 32-33), and eclipse of the Sun took place greater than any previously known, and night came on at the sixth hour of the day, so that stars actually appeared in the sky; and a great earthquake took place in Bithynia and overthrew the greater part of Niceaea;"

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr. (private communication):

“The fourth year of the 202 Ol. would be AD 29, by my calculations; but my dates for the Ol. years are off from the generally accepted dates. There was a spectacular solar eclispse that year, Nov. 24, AD 29, in late morning. It covered all of the Roman empire and was particularly spectacular from Jerusalem, and points to the east such as Turkey. The stars would have been visible, according to RedShift3.”

When: 39 CE March 13 to April 30

What: A comet

Associated historical event: Preceding Claudius’ death

Chief references:

Suetonius: “main omens of Claudius’ death included the rise of a long-haired star, known as a comet….”919 “a long-haired star, known as a comet.”930

Dio adds that this comet was “seen for a very long time….”920

Pliny the Elder lists four comets which were seen (during the reigns of various emperors) “in the western sky,” including the comet seen “about the time of the poisoning” of Claudius Caesar.921

Seneca gives a different description of this comet: “The Claudius comet rose from the north into the zenith and moved east, always growing dimmer.”922 Later, he reiterates that the comet was seen in the north, then rose straight up until it disappeared.923

A comet sighting was recorded by the ancient Chinese astronomers in A.D. 39, from March 13 to April 30. This comet had a conspicuous tail, with rays as long as 30 degrees.927 The comet was seen for about 49 days by the Chinese astronomers, a fairly lengthy observation period for a comet.

919 Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Penguin Books, 5.46.

920 Dio, Roman History, Volume VIII, Loeb Classical Library, 61.35.1.

921 Pliny, Natural History, 2.23.

922 Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Natural Questions II, ed. E. H. Warmington, trans. Thomas H. Corcoran, Loeb Classical Library, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1972), “Comets,” 7.21.3.

923 Kronk, Cometography, p. 28.

927 Kronk, Cometography, p. 27.

930 Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Penguin Books, 5.46.

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr.:

“In the year A.D. 39, a comet with a long tail was seen, which agrees with the information we have for the comet seen after the death of Claudius (see section 17 above). This time frame for Claudius’ reign, A.D. 26 to A.D. 39, also contains the rare event, mentioned by Dio, of a solar eclipse coinciding with the birthday of Claudius on Aug. 1 (see section 17 above).987

“This time frame for Claudius’ reign, A.D. 26 to A.D. 39, also contains the rare event, mentioned by Dio, of a solar eclipse coinciding with the birthday of Claudius on Aug. 1 (see section 17 above).987

987 Dio, Roman History, Volume VII, Loeb Classical Library, 60.26.1-5.

“Claudius’ Comet and Eclipse

“In this revised chronology, Claudius died in Oct. of A.D. 39. A comet sighting was recorded by the ancient Chinese astronomers in A.D. 39, from March 13 to April 30. This comet had a conspicuous tail, with rays as long as 30 degrees.927 This very noticeable comet occurred about six months before the death of Claudius. This length of time is certainly close enough to the time of Claudius’ death for the comet to have become associated with the later event. The comet was seen for about 49 days by the Chinese astronomers, a fairly lengthy observation period for a comet. Because this comet was very noticeable, was seen for many days, and occurred not long before the death of Claudius, the Romans would certainly have associated this comet with the emperor’s death. The ancient Chinese astronomers first saw the comet of A.D. 39 in the group of stars called the Pleiades.928 As seen from Rome at that time, the Pleiades were in the western sky after sunset. This location fits the description given by Pliny for the Claudius comet (seen in the western sky). According to the ancient astronomers, the comet then moved towards the northeast between the constellations Andromeda and Pegasus. This location would have been visible before dawn in the eastern sky. These constellations, and the comet, would then appear to rise higher in the sky as the hours passed and to dim as the sun began to rise. Also, when seen in the east about dawn, Andromeda and Pegasus are higher in the sky than the Pleiades, and the Pleiades are slightly further north.929 This location fits Seneca’s description that the comet rose in the sky and grew dimmer, and that it moved eastward, but it conflicts with Seneca’s statement that the comet was first seen in the north. The details we have about the location of Claudius’ comet fit both the description of the A.D. 39 and the A.D. 54 comet to a certain extent. However, there is a conflict between the locations of Claudius’ comet given by Pliny and Seneca. Pliny places the comet in the west, but Seneca places it first in the north, then moving towards the east. It is therefore unlikely that any comet could accurately and completely fit both Pliny and Seneca’s descriptions. … On the other hand, Suetonius describes Claudius’ comet as “a long-haired star, known as a comet.”930 This description can only fit a comet with a long tail. The A.D. 39 comet’s tail was 30 degrees in length… “

928 Kronk, Cometography, p. 27.

929 Locations of constellations, as seen from Rome, from RedShift 3 astronomy software.

930 Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Penguin Books, 5.46.

10. &

11.

When: 46 & 49 CE

What: 2 comet s

Associated historical event: Nero killed aristocrats in order to try to prevent the omens perceived in these comets.

Chief references:

Tacitus:

“A brilliant comet now appeared.” Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, Penguin Books, p. 324. Compare: Tacitus, The Annals, Loeb Classical Library, 14.22.

“omens of impending misfortune.” Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, Penguin Books, p. 367. See also: Tacitus, The Annals, Volume 5, Loeb Classical Library, 15.47.

“The general belief is that a comet means a change of emperor. So people speculated on Nero’s successor as though Nero were already dethroned.” Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, Penguin Books, p. 324. See also: Tacitus, The Annals, Volume 5, Loeb Classical Library, 14.22.

“Tacitus describes a second comet a few years later, at the end of the year of the burning of Rome. Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, p. 367; Tacitus, The Annals, Loeb Classical Library, 15.47. See also: Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, Penguin Books, p. 367.

“Tacitus tells us that this comet was “atoned for by Nero, as usual, by aristocratic blood….” Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, p. 367; Tacitus, The Annals, Loeb Classical Library, 15.47.

“Tacitus tells us that the fire that destroyed Rome began on July 19, yet he does not make any association between the comet and the fire. …Tacitus notes that the second comet was seen near the end of the year and was interpreted as a bad omen for events occurring after the burning of Rome. Furthermore, Tacitus states that Nero killed members of the aristocracy to atone for this comet sighting. Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, p. 367; Tacitus, The Annals, Loeb Classical Library, 15.47. See also: Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars, Loeb Classical Library, 6.36.

Pliny:

“Nero again followed the advice he received at the time of the previous comet. Pliny also describes a comet during Nero’s reign…” Conte Jr., Ronald L., Important Dates in the Lives of Jesus and Mary.

“Pliny also states that this comet was seen “during Nero’s principate shining almost continuously and with a terrible glare.” [Pliny, Natural History, 2.23.]“ Conte Jr., Ronald L., Important Dates in the Lives of Jesus and Mary.

Seneca:

“The poet Seneca describes a comet during the reign of Nero, when Paterculus and Vopiscus were consuls, … This comet began in the north, passed through the west, and ended in the southern sky. [Kronk, Cometography, p. 31.]” Conte Jr., Ronald L., Important Dates in the Lives of Jesus and Mary.

Suetonius:

“Suetonius mentions a comet observation before he describes the burning of Rome. [Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars, Loeb Classical Library, 6.36.] But he makes no association between the comet and that great fire, so the comet did not immediately precede the fire, and must have occurred many months, or even a few years, earlier. He also states that Nero consulted an astrologer and was advised to kill members of the aristocracy to atone for the comet. This description of the decision to atone for the comet indicates that this was the first time that Nero atoned for a comet by killing aristocrats. Therefore, this comet was the first comet of Nero’s reign, occurring a few years before the burning of Rome, in the year A.D. 46.” Conte Jr., Ronald L., Important Dates in the Lives of Jesus and Mary.

Conte:

“Nero was so concerned about each of these two comet sightings…, supposing it to be an omen of the end of his reign, that he massacred the Roman nobility in an attempt to divert this result. …There is no record of a comet in A.D. 49, my revised year for the burning of Rome, in either the ancient Chinese or Korean comet sightings. [Kronk, Cometography, p. 28, 33.] However, the recorded observations of the Chinese astronomers do show a gap during this time period….” Conte Jr., Ronald L., Important Dates in the Lives of Jesus and Mary.

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr.:

Tacitus refers to a comet seen during Nero’s reign as one of several “omens of impending misfortune.”900 In speaking about an earlier comet seen during Nero’s reign, Tacitus also tells us: “The general belief is that a comet means a change of emperor. So people speculated on Nero’s successor as though Nero were already dethroned.”901

The summer of Vitellius’ reign is clearly established (by the comet and eclipse described in section 17) as A.D. 54. Since Nero died in the June previous to Vitellius’ reign, Nero died in A.D. 53.

Nero’s Comets

Tacitus mentions two comet sightings during the reign of Nero. “A brilliant comet now appeared.”938 … my revised date for this comet sighting is A.D. 46. There are recorded comet sightings …from Korean astronomers only in A.D. 46.939 The poet Seneca describes a comet during the reign of Nero, when Paterculus and Vopiscus were consuls, … This comet began in the north, passed through the west, and ended in the southern sky.940 … My revised date for this comet sighting is A.D. 46. Korean astronomers recorded a comet sighting in the southern sky in A.D. 46.942 This location matches the final location of the comet described by Seneca. …the available information for the A.D. 46 comet does not conflict with any details given by Seneca. … Tacitus reports a second comet a few years later, at the end of the year of the burning of Rome, (…A.D. 49, revised).943 Tacitus does not give many details about this comet, but he does tells us that this comet was “atoned for by Nero, as usual, by aristocratic blood….”944 The phrase ‘as usual’ indicates Nero had previously killed members of the aristocracy in reaction to a comet or other celestial sign. Thus, Nero most likely killed members of the aristocracy in response to both comets.

…Tacitus tells us that the fire that destroyed Rome began on July 19, yet he does not make any association between the comet and the fire. …Tacitus notes that the second comet was seen near the end of the year and was interpreted as a bad omen for events occurring after the burning of Rome. Furthermore, Tacitus states that Nero killed members of the aristocracy to atone for this comet sighting.945 …

Nero was so concerned about each of these two comet sightings (…A.D. 46 and 49, revised dates), supposing it to be an omen of the end of his reign, that he massacred the Roman nobility in an attempt to divert this result. …There is no record of a comet in A.D. 49, my revised year for the burning of Rome, in either the ancient Chinese or Korean comet sightings.948 However, the recorded observations of the Chinese astronomers do show a gap during this time period. There are no comet sightings in the extant Chinese records from A.D. 40 to A.D. 53, inclusive, yet Korean astronomers recorded a comet sighting during the year A.D. 46.949 … Suetonius mentions a comet observation before he describes the burning of Rome.950 But he makes no association between the comet and that great fire, so the comet did not immediately precede the fire, and must have occurred many months, or even a few years, earlier. He also states that Nero consulted an astrologer and was advised to kill members of the aristocracy to atone for the comet. This description of the decision to atone for the comet indicates that this was the first time that Nero atoned for a comet by killing aristocrats. Therefore, this comet was the first comet of Nero’s reign, occurring a few years before the burning of Rome, in the year A.D. 46. Tacitus describes a second comet a few years later, at the end of the year of the burning of Rome, (…A.D. 49, revised).951 He tells us that this comet was “atoned for by Nero, as usual, by aristocratic blood….”952 Nero again followed the advice he received at the time of the previous comet. Pliny also describes a comet during Nero’s reign. He does not give enough information to place the comet in a particular month or year. However, he does say that the comet was seen in the western sky. Pliny also states that this comet was seen “during Nero’s principate shining almost continuously and with a terrible glare.”953 The phrase “shining almost continuously” probably means that this comet was seen during daytime as well as at night, since he adds that the comet’s glare was terrible. Not enough information is given by Pliny to determine whether this comet was the first or second comet of Nero’s reign. In his play Octavia, Seneca described a comet in the constellation Boötes. The events in this play surrounding this sighting are generally placed about the year …A.D. 47, revised. Boötes is located adjacent to the constellation Virgo, in the southern sky. There is no record of a comet sighting in A.D. 47. However, the comet of A.D. 46 was seen in the southern sky, and so fits the description of this comet. Thus, this comet could well be the comet of A.D. 46.

900 Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, Penguin Books, p. 367. See also: Tacitus, The Annals, Volume 5, Loeb Classical Library, 15.47.

901 Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, Penguin Books, p. 324. See also: Tacitus, The Annals, Volume 5, Loeb Classical Library, 14.22.

938 Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, Penguin Books, p. 324. Compare: Tacitus, The Annals, Loeb Classical Library, 14.22.

940 Kronk, Cometography, p. 31.

941 Kronk, Cometography, p. 31-32.

942 Kronk, Cometography, p. 28.

943 Tacitus, The Annals, Loeb Classical Library, 15.47. See also: Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, Penguin Books, p. 367.

944 Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, Penguin Books, p. 367. See also: Tacitus, The Annals, Loeb Classical Library, 15.47.

945 Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, p. 367; Tacitus, The Annals, Loeb Classical Library, 15.47. See also: Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars, Loeb Classical Library, 6.36.

946 Kronk, Cometography, p. 33.

947 Kronk, Cometography, p. 34.

948 Kronk, Cometography, p. 28, 33.

949 Kronk, Cometography, p. 27-28.

950 Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars, Loeb Classical Library, 6.36.

951 Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, p. 367; Tacitus, The Annals, Loeb Classical Library, 15.47.

952 Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, p. 367; Tacitus, The Annals, Loeb Classical Library, 15.47.

953 Pliny, Natural History, 2.23.

When: 54 CE seen between June 9 and July 9

What: A comet (preceding two apparent lunar eclipses within 3 days…)

Associated historical event: Comet and lunar eclipses reported by Dio during the reign of Vitellius

Chief reference: Dio (Dio lived and worked some 150 after these events and may not be a reliable source.)

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr.:

This comet had a tail measuring about 5 degrees and was seen between June 9 and July 9 of that year.955 In the following month, on August 7, a lunar eclipse occurred, which was visible from Rome before and during sunrise. Dio: “While he was behaving in this way, evil omens occurred. A comet was seen, and the moon, contrary to precedent, appeared to suffer two eclipses, being obscured on the fourth and on the seventh day.”954

954 Dio, Roman History, Volume VIII, Loeb Classical Library, 64.8.1.

955 Kronk, Cometography, p. 28-30. Note that Kronk states the comet was seen from June 9 to July 9, and that the full moons of those months were June 8 and July 8. Because these dates nearly coincide with the dates for consecutive full moons, the dates of June 9 to July 9 are more likely a time frame within which the comet was seen, rather than the exact beginning and endpoints of observation. The ancient Chinese astronomers would sometimes give a time frame related to phases of the moon within which a comet was seen, rather than exact beginning and endpoints of observation (e.g. Kronk, Cometography, p. 27, comets dated A.D. 13 and A.D. 22). This was particularly the case with comets observed over the course of less than one month.

When: 54 CE August 7

What: 2 lunar eclipses?

Associated historical event: Vitellius short reign as emperor of Rome

Chief reference: Dio (Dio lived and worked some 150 after these events and may not be a reliable source.)

Dio: A comet was seen, and the moon, contrary to precedent, appeared to suffer two eclipses, being obscured on the fourth and on the seventh day.”954

Conte: This comet … in the following month, on August 7, a lunar eclipse occurred, which was visible from Rome before and during sunrise.

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr.:

“The summer of Vitellius’ reign is clearly established (by the comet and eclipse described in section 17) as A.D. 54.”

Dio states that a comet was seen, followed by a lunar eclipse on the 4th or 7th of the month, during the summer of Vitellius’ reign.1009 The summer of A.D. 54 included the sighting of a conspicuous comet.1010 This sighting was followed by a lunar eclipse on the seventh of the month, visible from Rome. This unusual pairing of events is not found in any other year that could possibly be the year of Vitellius’ reign… This revised chronology places Otho’s death in April of A.D. 54. The summer of A.D. 54 contained the comet and eclipse associated with Vitellius’ reign.

1009 Dio, Roman History, Volume VIII, Loeb Classical Library, 64.8.1.

1010 Kronk, Cometography, p. 28-

The summer of A.D. 54 contained the comet and eclipse associated with Vitellius’ reign. Consequently, the death of Vitellius must be placed in late December of A.D. 54.

First, the summer of Vitellius’ reign included a comet sighting followed by a lunar eclipse on the 4th or 7th day of the month (see above). The only year fitting these criteria is A.D. 54; consequently, Vespasian’s antedated reign must have begun in A.D. 54.

Vitellius’ Comet [and lunar eclipse]

“While he was behaving in this way, evil omens occurred. A comet was seen, and the moon, contrary to precedent, appeared to suffer two eclipses, being obscured on the fourth and on the seventh day.”954 Dio first explains that Vitellius behaved very badly after he became emperor. Then he describes a comet, followed by two lunar eclipses. … Vespasian fought against Vitellius to obtain the throne during the autumn and into the winter. Therefore, the comet and the lunar eclipse occurred in the summertime, after Vitellius had become emperor and had behaved badly, but before Vespasian fought against Vitellius during the fall of that year. In A.D. 54, a comet was observed and recorded by the ancient Chinese astronomers. This comet had a tail measuring about 5 degrees and was seen between June 9 and July 9 of that year.955 In the following month, on August 7, a lunar eclipse occurred, which was visible from Rome before and during sunrise. There is no other year, in either the usual or my revised chronology, when a comet observation is followed by a lunar eclipse on either the 4th or 7th of the month. … Thus the pairing of a comet with a lunar eclipse (on the 4th or the 7th of the month) is rare enough so as to establish A.D. 54 as the only reasonable fit to Dio’s description.

954 Dio, Roman History, Volume VIII, Loeb Classical Library, 64.8.1.

When: 55/56 CE Dec. of A.D. 55 to March of A.D. 56.

What: A comet - The length of the observation was fairly long, 113 days.

Associated historical event: Preceding the burning of the Temple in Jerusalem and theDestruction of Jerusalem

Chief references:

Josephus: “Thus there was a star resembling a sword, which stood over the city, and a comet, that continued for a whole year.”¹¹⁴²“the signs that were so evident and did so plainly foretell their future desolation.”1143 The title of chapter 5 in book 6 of The Wars of the Jews, which specifically mentions the destruction of the Temple and the signs that preceded it: “…the Conflagration of the Holy House….the Signs that Preceded this Destruction.”1144

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr.:

The Comet of Jerusalem

Josephus does not mention those comets which the Romans associated with the deaths of various emperors. However, he does mention a comet associated with the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. “Thus there was a star resembling a sword, which stood over the city, and a comet, that continued for a whole year.”¹¹⁴²Comets are not generally visible to the naked eye for an entire year; the longest period of time that any comet would be visible is several months. Perhaps the star appeared for a whole year (the sighting of a nova, or new star, is not too rare an event), or perhaps the star and the comet together took up about a year. In any case, the exact time of this comet’s appearance is not clear from the text. Josephus places this comet sighting during the war, not long before the destruction of the Temple. He writes about “the signs that were so evident and did so plainly foretell their future desolation.”1143 But these words refer to the future desolation of the destruction of the Temple, not to the beginning of the war. This conclusion is supported by the title of chapter 5 in book 6 of The Wars of the Jews, which specifically mentions the destruction of the Temple and the signs that preceded it: “…the Conflagration of the Holy House….the Signs that Preceded this Destruction.”1144 Also, Josephus separates the comment about the comet from his next comment, about the events occurring before the war began, by saying: “Thus also, before the Jews’ rebellion, and before those commotions which preceded the war….”1145 This comet then was observed well after the war began, and was interpreted as a foreshadowing of the destruction of the Temple at the end of the war. According to Josephus, the rebellion of the Jews against the Romans began “in the twelfth year of the reign of Nero…in the month of Artemissus [Iyar].”1146 … In my revised chronology, the Jewish rebellion began in the spring of A.D. 51, and the destruction of Jerusalem occurred in summer of A.D. 56. There are a number of comets mentioned in the records of the ancient astronomers during these years.1147 However the comet most closely fitting Josephus’ description was sighted by the ancient Chinese astronomers from Dec. of A.D. 55 to March of A.D. 56. The length of the observation was fairly long, 113 days. And the sighting was not long before the destruction of the Temple in summer of A.D. 56. The length of the observation of this comet is not near to a year, but Joseph may have been referring to the star (nova), or to the combination of star and comet, when he gives the length of time as about a year.1148

1042 Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 4. 491.

1043 Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 4.499.

1044 Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 4.548.

1045 Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 4. 601.

1046 Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 4.632, 652-654.

1047 Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 4.658.

1048 Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 4.659-663.

When: 56 CE??

What: A pairing of a solar and a lunar eclipse within 15 days

Associated historical event: Celestial events occurring during the 3^rd consulship of Emperor Vespasian and the 2^nd consulship of the younger Vespasian

Chief references:

Pliny states that an unusual celestial event occurred during the reign of Vespasian—a pairing of solar and lunar eclipses. “For the eclipse of both sun and moon within 15 days of each other has occurred even in our time, in the year of the third consulship of the elder Emperor Vespasian and the second consulship of the younger.”962

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr.:

Pliny states that an unusual celestial event occurred during the reign of Vespasian—a pairing of solar and lunar eclipses. “For the eclipse of both sun and moon within 15 days of each other has occurred even in our time, in the year of the third consulship of the elder Emperor Vespasian and the second consulship of the younger.”962 Vespasian, the emperor, had a son named Titus, whose surname was also Vespasian.963 So the year referred to here is the year in which the two consuls were the emperor Vespasian and his son, the younger Vespasian, who is usually called Titus. … In my revised chronology, the fall of Jerusalem occurred in A.D. 56, the year of Vespasian’s third consulship.

In A.D. 56, a lunar eclipse on June 16 was visible [penumbral only!!!] from Rome before and during dawn. A partial solar eclipse followed, 15 days later, on July 1.966 This solar eclipse was not visible from Rome, but was visible from all of Spain, most of northern Africa, southern France, and the island of Sicily. Pliny was not, however, relying on calculation to determine when this eclipse pair occurred. Pairs of lunar and solar eclipses occurring 15 days apart are common; what is rare, and what Pliny was referring to, is a pair of lunar and solar eclipses, 15 days apart, which are both visible. Pliny was stationed in Spain from the latter part of Nero’s reign until Vespasian became emperor. But during the time of this solar eclipse, Pliny had left his post in Spain and was probably in living in Rome. Pliny was a part of Vespasian’s inner circle at Rome and was eventually put in command of the Roman fleet at Misenum on the Bay of Naples.967 Though the solar eclipse was not visible from Rome or Naples, it was visible from the sea and the islands to the west and south of Rome and Naples. Pliny may have received reports from those locations, or from Spain where he was formerly Procurator, so that he knew about the eclipse but did not view it himself.

962 Pliny, Natural History, 2.10.

963 Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, p. 292. See also: Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars, Loeb Classical Library, Book VIII, Titus, 1.1.

966 Lunar and solar eclipse data from RedShift 3 astronomy software, and from the NASA web site: Fred Espenak, Five Millennium Catalog of Solar Eclipses, NASA/GSFC, <http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat/SEcatalog.html>. Fred Espenak, Five Millennium Catalog of Lunar Eclipses, NASA/GSFC, <http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/LEcat/LEcatalog.html>.

967 Pliny, Natural History, books I – II, ed. G. P. Goold, trans. H. Rackham, Pliny, Volume I, Loeb Classical Library, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1991), p. vii.

When: 60 CE in August

What: A comet

Associated historical event: Titus Imperator Caesar in his 5th consulship wrote an account in his famous poem” about a comet

Chief references:

Pliny mentions a comet associated with Titus, but seen before he became emperor. “ ‘Javelin-stars’ quiver like a dart; these are a very terrible portent. To this class belongs the comet about which Titus Imperator Caesar in his 5th consulship wrote an account in his famous poem, that being its latest appearance down to the present day.”968

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr.:

Titus’ Comet

My revised chronology places Titus’ reign from June of A.D. 66 to Sept. of A.D. 68. Here again, there are no recorded observations of comets by the ancient astronomers. Pliny mentions a comet associated with Titus, but seen before he became emperor. “ ‘Javelin-stars’ quiver like a dart; these are a very terrible portent. To this class belongs the comet about which Titus Imperator Caesar in his 5th consulship wrote an account in his famous poem, that being its latest appearance down to the present day.”968 …My revised date for Titus’ 5th consulship is A.D. 60, four years after his second consulship in A.D. 56. …But Pliny does not say that the comet was seen during Titus’ 5th consulship, but rather that Titus wrote about the comet during his 5^th consulship. Since this comet was seen near the end of the year, Titus could have written about it during or just after it was seen, at the end of his 5th consulship. In my revised chronology, Titus’ 5th consulship fell in A.D. 60. Ancient Chinese astronomers recorded sighting a comet for 135 days (Aug.-Dec.) in A.D. 60. This comet was described as a “broom star” with a tail of about 2 degrees.970 This description fits Pliny’s description of a “Javelin-star,” and the length of its visibility makes it very likely that the comet was noticed by the Romans. This comet sighting began in August of A.D. 60, during Titus’ 5th consulship. Titus could have written about this comet before the end of his 5^th consulship. …. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius occurred in the first year of the reign of Titus, only a couple of months after the death of Vespasian. Pliny the Elder died as a result of that disaster. …However, in this revised chronology, the death of Vespasian is placed in June of A.D. 66, so that the revised date for the eruption of Mount Vesuvius is August 23-24 of A.D. 66.

968 Pliny, Natural History, 2.22.

969 Kronk, Cometography, p. 36.

970 Kronk, Cometography, p. 31.

When: 65/66 CE - Jan.-April of A.D. 66 & July-Sept. A.D. 65

What: A comet [and eclipses - Cf. #‎13 above!]- Halley’s Comet (Jan.-April of A.D. 66) and another “long-tailed star” (July-Sept.) A.D. 65.

Associated historical event: A comet observed prior to the death of Vespasian

Chief references:

Both Suetonius and Dio describe a comet that appeared before the death of Vespasian. The comet had a long, conspicuous tail and so was described as having long hair.

Dio tells us about Vespasian: “To those who said anything to him about the comet he said: ‘This is an omen, not for me, but for the Parthian king; for he has long hair, whereas I am bald.’ ”957 Dio adds that the comet “was visible for a long time.”958

Quoting Ronald L. Conte Jr.:

the comet data presents us with a very good fit for the comet preceding the death of Vespasian if he died after a reign of nearly 12 years,

the end of Vespasian’s reign as June of A.D. 66. That date for Vespasian’s death also follows closely the recorded observations of Chinese astronomers of two very conspicuous comets: Halley’s Comet (Jan.-April of A.D. 66) and another “long-tailed star” (July-Sept.) A.D. 65. Thus the comet information and the information on the length of Titus’ life both support the same year for the death of Vespasian—A.D. 66.

Vespasian’s Comet and Eclipses [Cf. #‎13 above!]

Both Suetonius and Dio describe a comet that appeared before the death of Vespasian. The comet had a long, conspicuous tail and so was described as having long hair. The Roman people interpreted this as an omen that Vespasian would soon die. But Dio tells us: “To those who said anything to him about the comet he said: ‘This is an omen, not for me, but for the Parthian king; for he has long hair, whereas I am bald.’ ”957 Dio adds that the comet “was visible for a long time.”958 The identification of this comet is important in determining the year of Vespasian’s death. If Dio was correct in giving the length of Vespasian’s reign as ten years, then the revised dates for his reign would be A.D. 55 to 65. However, the long-haired comet observed by Chinese astronomers in A.D. 65 was first sighted near the end of July, whereas Vespasian died in June.959 There was no comet observed in the earlier months of A.D. 65, and the comet of A.D. 64 did not have a long tail (and may have been a nova rather than a comet). Furthermore, there is no mention of a comet foreshadowing the death of the emperor Titus, who died only a little more than 2 years after Vespasian. If Vespasian died in A.D. 65, then Titus’ death would be placed in A.D. 67. There were two conspicuous comets in A.D. 65 to 66: a long-tailed comet seen from July to Sept. of A.D. 65, and Halley’s comet (also with a noticeable tail), seen from Jan. to April of A.D. 66.960 Neither of these is mentioned as having been seen during Titus’ reign. These were two very noticeable comets. Since the Romans believed comets were ill omens, they would have associated these with the death of Titus, if they had been seen during his reign. They also would have likely associated these comets with the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, a major fire in Rome, and an outbreak of the plague, all of which occurred during Titus’ reign. Yet there is no mention of these comets. Therefore, the observation of these comets did not occur during the reign of Titus. However, both of these two comets (A.D. 65 and A.D. 66) fit well the description of the comet preceding the death of Vespasian. They both had long tails and so could be described as “long-haired” comets. And Dio makes a point of saying that the comet preceding the death of Vespasian was visible for a long time. The two comets of A.D. 65 and A.D. 66 were seen from July to Sept. of A.D. 65 and Jan to April of A.D. 66. These two could easily have been mistaken as one comet, which seemed to be visible for an unusually long time. Thus the long-haired comet at the end of Vespasian’s reign was actually two comets, seen over much of the year preceding his death. Vespasian’s death must then be placed in June of A.D. 66, after an antedated reign of nearly 12 years (July of A.D. 54 to June of A.D. 66), not ten years as Dio stated. (Further evidence in support of a longer reign for Vespasian is presented below.) As occurred with Tiberius’ reign, here again is a case where the antedating of an emperor’s reign may have resulted in confusion over when that reign began and ended. The antedating of the reigns of Vespasian and the three emperors before him (Otho, Galba, Vitellius) may have been the cause of this misunderstanding as to the length of Vespasian’s reign….

957 Dio, Roman History, Volume VIII, Loeb Classical Library, 66.17.3.

958 Dio, Roman History, Volume VIII, Loeb Classical Library, 66.17.2.

959 Kronk, Cometography, p. 33.

960 Kronk, Cometography, p. 33-35.

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